Nonconsensual Sexting: Are the Moral Processes the Same If Boys or Girls Appear in the Forwarded Content?

Sexting is a form of intimate communication available in today's digital society consisting of exchanging erotic-sexual content online. However, doing it without the consent of the person appearing in the content is becoming a normalized form of cyberviolence among adolescents. To advance our understanding of this phenomenon, further research is needed on its facilitating factors, which may include those related to its potential moral dimension and online disinhibition. This study aims to analyze, according to gender and age, the relationship between nonconsensual forwarding of erotic-sexual content, differentiating between the type of content and the gender of the person appearing in it, moral disengagement, and toxic online disinhibition. A total of 1,611 adolescents (47.9 percent girls) aged 12-15 years (M = 13.4; SD = 1.0) participated in the study. Moral disengagement and toxic disinhibition have been shown to facilitate nonconsensual forwarding of erotic-sexual content, but their relevance varies depending on the type of content, and whether girls or boys appear in it. Facilitating factors for nonconsensual forwarding of content featuring boys include age, the diffusion of the consequences, and toxic online disinhibition. For girls, identifying with the male gender and cognitive restructuring were the main facilitators. These findings represent an original advance in the field of study by discriminating between the type of content forwarded and the gender of the person who appears in it. The differences found contribute toward explaining the processes that lead to making immoral decisions when sexting and help lay the foundations for designing psychoeducational programs in the future.

Trajectories of defending behaviors: Longitudinal association with normative and social adjustment and self-perceived popularity.

Defending the victim in bullying situations is a moral behavior that has received increasing attention in the literature. However, important questions about the development and maintenance of defending behaviors remain unanswered. The present study adopted a longitudinal design with two main goals: (a) identifying trajectories of change in individuals' defending behavior over time and (b) describing and comparing the initial levels and dynamics of change in normative and social adjustment and self-perceived popularity between the different defending trajectories. A total of 3303 students (49.8% girls; Wave 1 Mage = 12.61 years; SD = 1.47) participated in the study. Data were collected in four waves with self-report questionnaires. Using growth mixture modeling, we found four defending trajectories (84% stable-high, 5% decrease, 4% increase, and 7% stable-low). Growth mixture model multigroup and comparative analyses found that adolescents in the stable-high defending group exhibited the highest initial levels of normative adjustment (Mintercept = 5.47), social adjustment (Mintercept = 5.48), and self-perceived popularity (Mintercept = 5). Adolescents in the decrease defending group tended to reduce their normative adjustment over time (Mslope = -0.09), whereas the increase defending group increased their social adjustment (Mslope = 0.18) and self-perceived popularity (Mslope = -0.04). The stable-low defending group showed low and stable levels of normative adjustment (Mintercept = 5.01), social adjustment (Mintercept = 5.03), and self-perceived popularity (Mintercept = 4.4). These results indicate a strong association between normative and social adjustment and self-perceived popularity and involvement in defending behaviors. Bullying prevention programs could improve by adding a stronger focus on the development of classroom dynamics that promote adjusted behaviors and class-group cohesion.

Bullying and Cyberbullying Perpetration and Victimization: Prospective Within-Person Associations.

Bidirectional associations between bullying and cyberbullying have consistently identified during adolescence. However, little is known about how this relationship works on the within-person level, after controlling for potential overlap at the between-person level. This study examined the bidirectional longitudinal associations between bullying and cyberbullying perpetration and victimization during 18-month period over four time points. A total of 2835 participants, aged 11 to 16 years in time 1 (50% girls; Mage = 13.13, SD = 1.06) were surveyed. Random intercept cross-lagged analyses revealed the stability of bullying perpetration and victimization. Cyberbullying victimization predicted inversely bullying and cyberbullying perpetration. The results indicate spirals of positive long-term associations between bullying (perpetration and victimization) and cyberbullying perpetration but no long-terms spirals of victimization.

Adolescents' social anxiety dynamics in a latent transition analysis and its psychosocial effects

Background/Objective: The present study aims to explore the dynamics of social anxiety profiles in adolescents over time and the psychosocial effects these dynamics have.Method: A representative sample of Andalusian (southern Spain) adolescents in Secondary Education was drawn. The study used single-stage stratified cluster sampling. A total of 2,140 students aged 11-16 years (47% girls; MageT1 = 13.68, SD = 1.27) were involved at two time points with a six-month interval.Results: The results provided a four-profile structure: low social anxiety, moderate cognitive disturbance, high with difficulties in new situations, and high social anxiety. The latent transition analysis showed a stability in the social anxiety profiles of between 58%-61%. Those adolescents who remained in or transitioned to profiles with higher social anxiety scored worse on peer adjustment, peer victimization and subjective well-being.Conclusions: The study may contribute the improvement of the psychological treatments in social anxiety and reduce adverse effects on peer relationships and well-being by distinguishing the profiles and their dynamics. (AU)

Adolescents' social anxiety dynamics in a latent transition analysis and its psychosocial effects.

Background/Objective: The present study aims to explore the dynamics of social anxiety profiles in adolescents over time and the psychosocial effects these dynamics have. Method: A representative sample of Andalusian (southern Spain) adolescents in Secondary Education was drawn. The study used single-stage stratified cluster sampling. A total of 2,140 students aged 11-16 years (47% girls; Mage T1 = 13.68, SD = 1.27) were involved at two time points with a six-month interval. Results: The results provided a four-profile structure: low social anxiety, moderate cognitive disturbance, high with difficulties in new situations, and high social anxiety. The latent transition analysis showed a stability in the social anxiety profiles of between 58%-61%. Those adolescents who remained in or transitioned to profiles with higher social anxiety scored worse on peer adjustment, peer victimization and subjective well-being. Conclusions: The study may contribute the improvement of the psychological treatments in social anxiety and reduce adverse effects on peer relationships and well-being by distinguishing the profiles and their dynamics.

Friendship selection and influence processes for popularity in early and mid-adolescents.

INTRODUCTION: This study examined the effect of popularity levels on friendship selection and friends' influence on popularity levels in early and mid-adolescence. METHODS: Participants were 4205 Spanish adolescents (Mage = 13.1 years at Wave 1; 48% girls) belonging to 160 classrooms in two waves. Adolescents were asked about their friendships and the popularity of their classmates. RESULTS: Longitudinal social network analyses showed that adolescents preferred similarly popular peers as friends. High popular classmates were more attractive as friends, particularly in early adolescence. Popular adolescents were more selective in their friendship nominations and adolescents with popular friends became more popular over time. These two effects were only significant in mid-adolescents, although comparative analyses showed a similar tendency at both age groups. CONCLUSIONS: This study highlights the importance of popularity levels in adolescents' friendship selection and suggests that popularity, at the individual and group level, plays a relevant role in social development. Implications adapted to the different selection and influence processes in early and mid-adolescence are discussed.

Adolescent Involvement in Cybergossip: Influence on Social Adjustment, Bullying and Cyberbullying.

Gossip is a type of social behavior present in all types of social networks, and cybergossip is an emerging kind of online social behavior which can both promote and hinder relationships between peers. The aim of this study was to explore the relation between involvement in cybergossip and the development of behavior of social adjustment, bullying and cyberbullying (aggression and victimization), based on gender and age. A total of 510 secondary school students (49.4% girls) aged 12 to 17 years old (M = 14.01; SD = 1.38) were surveyed by self-report. Questionnaires validated with adolescents were used to measure bullying, social adjustment and cyberbullying. The results showed that a high prevalence of involvement in cybergossip was associated with bullying and cyberbullying behavior (aggression and victimization), with girls showing the greatest involvement in cybergossip. The discussion of the results focuses on the gender difference, as well as the importance of the need for training in the proper use of digital devices for social education and socialization.

Positive Peer Perception, Social Anxiety and Classroom Social Adjustment as Risk Factors in Peer Victimization: A Multilevel Study.

OBJECTIVE: Individual risks factors of peer victimization have been widely identified in children and adolescents. However, little is known about how the classroom context may increase or decrease the frequency of victimization. The present short-term prospective longitudinal study used a a person-by-environment approach to examine whether peer perception and social anxiety, along with class social adjustment levels as a moderator, affect the likelihood of peer victimization over time. METHOD: These effects were modelled using a representative sample of 2,512 Andalusian (Southern Spain) (52% girls) aged 10 to 16 years old (M = 12.81; SD = 1.69 at Wave 1). Classroom social adjustment was assessed by within-classroom standard deviation in social adjustment. RESULTS: Multilevel modeling indicated a negative relationship between peer perception at W1 and peer victimization at W2, as well as a positive association with social anxiety at W1, after controlling for gender, age and victimization at W1. The direct association between peer perception and peer victimization was intensified by class social adjustment. CONCLUSIONS: The results provide a more nuanced understanding of the influence of cognitive, emotional, and social variables when trying to address vulnerability to victimization.

Positive Peer Perception, Social Anxiety and Classroom Social Adjustment as Risk Factors in Peer Victimization: A Multilevel Study / Percepción Positiva de los Iguales, Ansiedad Social y Ajuste Social enel Aula Como Factores de Riesgo de la Victimización Entre Escolares:un Estudio Multinivel

Objective: Individual risks factors of peer victimization have been widelyidentified in children and adolescents. However, little is known abouthow the classroom context may increase or decrease the frequency ofvictimization. The present short-term prospective longitudinal study useda a person-by-environment approach to examine whether peer perceptionand social anxiety, along with class social adjustment levels as a moderator,affect the likelihood of peer victimization over time. Method: Theseeffects were modelled using a representative sample of 2,512 Andalusian(Southern Spain) (52% girls) aged 10 to 16 years old (M = 12.81; SD =1.69 at Wave 1). Classroom social adjustment was assessed by within-classroom standard deviation in social adjustment. Results: Multilevelmodeling indicated a negative relationship between peer perception at W1and peer victimization at W2, as well as a positive association with socialanxiety at W1, after controlling for gender, age and victimization at W1.The direct association between peer perception and peer victimization wasintensified by class social adjustment. Conclusions: The results provide amore nuanced understanding of the influence of cognitive, emotional, andsocial variables when trying to address vulnerability to victimization

Objetivo: factores individuales de riesgo de lavictimización entre iguales han sido ampliamente identificados. Poco essabido sobre cómo el contexto del aula puede influir en la victimización.El presente estudio longitudinal prospectivo a corto plazo examinó, desdeun enfoque individuo-contexto, si la percepción de los iguales, la ansiedadsocial y los niveles de ajuste social de clase como moderador influyen enla probabilidad ser víctimas a lo largo del tiempo. Método: se contó unamuestra representativa andaluza (sur de España) de 2.512 escolares (52%chicas) entre 10 y 16 años (M = 12,81; DT = 1,69 en Tiempo 1). El ajustesocial en el aula se evaluó mediante la desviación típica de la variable.Resultados: la modelización multinivel indicó una relación negativaentre la percepción positiva de los iguales en T1 y la victimización enT2, y positiva con la ansiedad social en T1, controlando el sexo, la edady la victimización en T1. La asociación directa entre percepción de losiguales y victimización se intensificó por el nivel de ajuste social de laclase. Conclusiones: estos resultados proporcionan una comprensión másmatizada de la influencia de variables cognitivas, emocionales y socialespara abordar la vulnerabilidad a la victimización.

Aggression, Moral Disengagement and Empathy. A Longitudinal Study Within the Interpersonal Dynamics of Bullying.

Moral disengagement and empathy have been linked to aggression in traditional bullying. A number of longitudinal studies have focused on how these variables predict aggressive behavior within the dynamics of bullying. However, no conclusive results have been produced as to whether aggressive behavior in bullying can predict lower levels of empathy, and to date, no studies have explored in depth the mediating role of moral disengagement strategies in this relationship, which is the aim of this study. A total of 1,810 students (51.0% girls; M age = 14.50; SD = 1.05) completed a survey in three waves at 6-month intervals. The results showed that aggressive behavior in bullying at Time 1 was inversely related to affective and cognitive empathy at Time 3. Minimization of responsibility, distortion of consequences and dehumanizing mediated in the aggressive behavior exhibited by the bullying aggressors and in cognitive empathy, while cognitive restructuring and the distortion of consequences mediated in affective empathy. We discuss the impact on moral and emotional sensitivity of the continued aggression occurring in the interpersonal dynamics of bullying, as well as the relationship between certain strategies of moral disengagement and the different types of empathy. We also comment on the need to design intervention programs to address the lowering of moral criteria and empathy in young people and adolescents involved in traditional bullying.

Bullying Perpetration, Moral Disengagement and Need for Popularity: Examining Reciprocal Associations in Adolescence.

Precursors and consequences of bullying have been widely explored, but much remains unclear about the association of moral and motivational factors. This study examined longitudinal associations between need for popularity, moral disengagement, and bullying perpetration. A total of 3017 participants, aged 11 to 16 years in wave 1 (49% girls; Mage = 13.15, SD = 1.09), were surveyed across four waves with six-month intervals. At the between-person level, cross-lagged modeling revealed a positive bidirectional association between moral disengagement and need for popularity; bullying perpetration was predicted by both need for popularity and moral disengagement. From the within-person level, random intercept cross-lagged analyses revealed that need for popularity predicted both moral disengagement and bullying perpetration. The results highlight the interplay between motivational and moral mechanisms that underlies bullying behavior.

Moral Disengagement Strategies in Online and Offline Bullying / Las estrategias de desconexión moral en el acoso escolar virtual y cara a cara

Bullying and cyberbullying perpetration can involve cognitive processes of moral disengagement; however, there is no clear evidence about which strategies have the greatest influence on this type of behaviour. The aim of this paper was to examine which dimensions of moral disengagement were associated to bullying (off/online) and to explore the effect of gender and age. A total 1,274 students (48.6% girls, aged 11 to 17 years old) from the south of Spain were surveyed (M = 13.63, SD = 1.31). Multivariate multiple regression analyses showed that age and all moral disengagement mechanisms were associated with both offline and online bullying. Univariate regressions revealed that cognitive restructuring was the most strongly associated with both. The interaction between age and cognitive restructuring was only related to offline bullying. Simple slope analyses showed different effects for younger and older classmates at high levels of cognitive restructuring. Specific moral disengagement strategies have special significance for adolescent bullying and cyberbullying perpetration, with cognitive restructuring in particular promoting bullying perpetration in younger students. The results are discussed in relation to practical implications to prevent bullying and cyberbullying. (AU)

La agresión en forma de acoso escolar y ciberacoso implica la activación de procesos cognitivos de desconexión moral, aunque no existe una clara evidencia sobre las estrategias que influyen en mayor medida en este tipo de comportamiento. El objetivo fue examinar qué dimensiones de la desconexión moral se asociaban al acoso escolar (cara a cara/virtual) y explorar los efectos que tienen que ver con el sexo y la edad. Participaron un total de 1,274 estudiantes (48.6% chicas, de edades entre los 11 y 17 años) del sur de España (M = 13.63, DT = 1.31). Los análisis de regresión múltiple mostraron que la edad y todos los mecanismos de desconexión moral se asociaron con acoso escolar virtual y cara a cara; las regresiones univariadas indican que la restructuración cognitiva ha sido la estrategia más asociada. La interacción entre la edad y la restructuración cognitiva solo se ha relacionado con el acoso cara a cara. Los análisis de pendiente simple mostraron diferentes efectos en los más jóvenes y los más mayores cuando el nivel de restructuración cognitiva era alto. Las estrategias específicas de desconexión moral tienen una gran importancia en los comportamientos de agresión en forma de acoso y ciberacoso en los adolescentes, siendo la restructuración cognitiva la que particularmente potencia la agresión en forma de acoso en los alumnos más jóvenes. Se discuten los resultados en relación a sus implicaciones prácticas para prevenir el acoso y el ciberacoso. (AU)

Longitudinal associations between cybervictimization, anger rumination, and cyberaggression.

Adolescents' involvement in cyberbullying has been a growing public health concern for some time. Cybervictimization and cyberaggression are two phenomena that previous research has often shown to be associated. However, longitudinal research into these associations and also into potential risk factors for these phenomena is less common. Anger rumination is a proven risk factor for aggressive behavior, but the relationship between anger rumination and victimization is not clear. The present longitudinal study investigated the associations between cybervictimization, anger rumination and cyberbullying in a sample of 3017 adolescents (MW1 = 13.15; SD = 1.09; 49% girls) from 7th to 9th grade. The European Cyberbullying Intervention Project Questionnaire and the Anger Rumination Scale were administered in four waves with 6 months intervals over a total period of 18 months. The associations between the variables were analyzed with a cross-lagged model. We found that: cybervictimization predicted anger rumination and cyberaggression; anger rumination was associated with later increases in both cybervictimization and cyberaggression: but involvement in cyberaggression predicted neither subsequent involvement in cybervictimization, nor in anger rumination. In addition, cybervictimization was found to mediate the association between anger rumination and cyberaggression. This study expands the understanding of the factors associated with cybervictimization and cyberaggression, and its results indicate that intervention programs should focus on boosting self-control to decrease impulsive behavior and protocols to prevent and intervene in cyberbullying.

Mechanisms of Moral Disengagement in the Transition from Cybergossip to Cyberaggression: A Longitudinal Study.

The internet is an area where young people establish relationships and develop socially, emotionally and morally, but it also gives rise to certain forms of online behaviour, such as cybergossip, which are associated with cyberaggression and other risky behaviour. The aims of this study were to verify whether a longitudinal association exists between cybergossip and cyberaggression, and to discover which mechanisms of moral disengagement may mediate this relationship. The final sample consisted of 1392 students (50% girls; Mage = 13.47; SD = 0.77), who were surveyed in a three-wave longitudinal study at six-month intervals. The results obtained confirmed a direct, positive relationship between cybergossip, subsequent cyberaggression and the mediation exerted by cognitive restructuring in this transition. We discuss the importance of recognizing and detecting the fine distinction between online gossip and cyberaggression with the intention of doing harm, and focus on the justifications used by young people to normalize online bullying. To sum up, there is a clear need to encourage ethical, responsible behaviour in online interactions in order to achieve well-balanced, more sustainable relationships in classrooms.

Social status and friendship in peer victimization trajectories / Estatus social y amistad en trayectorias de victimización entre iguales

Background/Objective: Most studies have evaluated victimization at a single time point, making it difficult to determine the impact of the time during which an individual is victimized. This longitudinal study aims to examine the differences in the levels of social status (social preference and perceived popularity) and friendship in peer victimization trajectories, and to analyse if there were changes over time in the levels of social status and friendship in each trajectory. Method: The final sample was composed of 1,239 students (49% girls) with ages between 9 and 18 (M = 12.23, SD = 1.73), from 22 schools in southern Spain. Peer nominations were collected. Results: The General Linear Model results associated the highest levels of social preference, perceived popularity and friendship with the sporadic victimization profile and the lowest levels of these dimensions with the stable profile. Conclusions:The results are discussed based on important personal aspects of stable victimization that confirms social rejection, unpopularity, and the low social support that victimization causes. This contribution is discussed in terms of health and social welfare in adolescence. (AU)

Antecedentes/Objetivo:La mayoría de los estudios han evaluado la victimización en un único momento temporal, lo que impide determinar el impacto del tiempo durante el que un individuo es victimizado. Este estudio longitudinal pretende examinar las diferencias en los niveles de estatus social (preferencia social y popularidad percibida) y amistad entre las diferentes trayectorias de las víctimas de iguales en función de su trayectoria de victimización, y explorar si existen cambios con el paso del tiempo en los niveles de estatus social y amistad de cada trayectoria. Método:La muestra se compuso por 1.239 estudiantes (49% chicas) entre 9 y 18 años (M = 12,23, DT = 1,73), pertenecientes a 22 centros educativos del sur de España. Se utilizaron las hetero-nominaciones de sus iguales dentro del grupo de clase. Resultados:Los resultados del Modelo Lineal General asociaron los niveles más altos de preferencia social, popularidad percibida y amistad a la victimización esporádica, y los niveles más bajos de estas dimensiones a la trayectoria estable. Conclusiones:Los resultados se discuten en base al rechazo social, la impopularidad y los escasos apoyos sociales que provoca la victimización. Se valora esta aportación a nivel de salud y bienestar social adolescente. (AU)

Social status and friendship in peer victimization trajectories.

Background/Objective: Most studies have evaluated victimization at a single time point, making it difficult to determine the impact of the time during which an individual is victimized. This longitudinal study aims to examine the differences in the levels of social status (social preference and perceived popularity) and friendship in peer victimization trajectories, and to analyse if there were changes over time in the levels of social status and friendship in each trajectory. Method: The final sample was composed of 1,239 students (49% girls) with ages between 9 and 18 (M = 12.23, SD = 1.73), from 22 schools in southern Spain. Peer nominations were collected. Results: The General Linear Model results associated the highest levels of social preference, perceived popularity and friendship with the sporadic victimization profile and the lowest levels of these dimensions with the stable profile. Conclusions:The results are discussed based on important personal aspects of stable victimization that confirms social rejection, unpopularity, and the low social support that victimization causes. This contribution is discussed in terms of health and social welfare in adolescence.

Antecedentes/Objetivo:La mayoría de los estudios han evaluado la victimización en un único momento temporal, lo que impide determinar el impacto del tiempo durante el que un individuo es victimizado. Este estudio longitudinal pretende examinar las diferencias en los niveles de estatus social (preferencia social y popularidad percibida) y amistad entre las diferentes trayectorias de las víctimas de iguales en función de su trayectoria de victimización, y explorar si existen cambios con el paso del tiempo en los niveles de estatus social y amistad de cada trayectoria. Método:La muestra se compuso por 1.239 estudiantes (49% chicas) entre 9 y 18 años (M = 12,23, DT = 1,73), pertenecientes a 22 centros educativos del sur de España. Se utilizaron las hetero-nominaciones de sus iguales dentro del grupo de clase. Resultados:Los resultados del Modelo Lineal General asociaron los niveles más altos de preferencia social, popularidad percibida y amistad a la victimización esporádica, y los niveles más bajos de estas dimensiones a la trayectoria estable. Conclusiones:Los resultados se discuten en base al rechazo social, la impopularidad y los escasos apoyos sociales que provoca la victimización. Se valora esta aportación a nivel de salud y bienestar social adolescente.

Percepción y Motivación Social: Elementos Predictores de la Ansiedad y el Ajuste Social en Adolescentes / Perception and social motivation: Predictive elements of social anxiety and adjustment in adolescents

La percepción de los iguales y las metas sociales tienen un papel clave en el comportamiento social. No obstante, su influencia en el desarrollo de ansiedad social o su impacto en el ajuste social durante la adolescencia no ha sido examinada con profundidad. El objetivo de este estudio fue explorar la relación de la percepción de los iguales y las metas sociales con la ansiedad y el ajuste social. Los participantes fueron 848 adolescentes españoles (47.5 % chicas) de entre 12 y 17 años (M = 13.58, DT = 1.247). Los modelos de ecuaciones estructurales indicaron que la percepción positiva de los iguales y las metas de desarrollo social influyen directamente en el ajuste social, mientras que la percepción negativa y las metas de evitación social se vinculan a la ansiedad social. Esta evidencia destaca la importancia de potenciar el planteamiento de metas de desarrollo social y la percepción positiva de los iguales

Previous research suggests that peer perception and social goals have an important role in social behavior. However, their influence on social anxiety or their impact on social adjustment during adolescence has not been examined indepth. The aim of this study was to test the relationship of peer perception and social goals with social anxiety and social adjustment. The sample was composed of 848 Spanish adolescents (47.5% women) aged between 12 and 17 years(M = 13.58, SD = 1.247). Structural equation modeling indicated that peer perception and social development goals have a direct effect on social adjustment, whereas a negative peer perception and social demonstration-avoidance goals were linked to social anxiety. These results highlight the importance of encouraging the setting of social development goals and positive perception of peers

Differences in perceived popularity and social preference between bullying roles and class norms.

The aim of this study was to examine differences in perceived popularity and social preference of bullying roles and class norms. In total, 1,339 students (48% girls) participated: 674 primary school (M = 10.41 years, SD = 0.49) and 685 secondary school students (M = 12.67 years, SD = 0.80). Peer nominations and perceptions of class norms were collected. The results showed the highest perceived popularity among aggressors and defenders, except in anti-bullying primary school classes, where aggressors had low levels of popularity. In pro-bullying secondary school classes school, female victims had the lowest popularity levels. These findings suggest that class norms and personal variables as gender and school levels are important to understand bullying roles. Practical implications are discussed to guide teachers and practitioners according to the importance to adapt antibullying programs to the characteristics of the group in each school level and gender.